Benefits and Drawbacks of Rta Essay

Under the current legal system of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), there are two categories of rules on the RTAs in the area of trade in goods: the first is based on the Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which generally applies to all RTAs; the second is based on the so-called Enabling Clause, which in exceptional circumstances, provide special and differential treatment (SDT) for RTAs among developing countries. 3.4.1. Advantages of Regional Initiatives Regional initiatives have a number of advantages which explain why so many countries are members of such agreements: †¢Region Specific Issues Firstly, a regional agreement can help in dealing with region-specific issues, such as border controls, transit, migration, or movement of labour. Countries recognize that other more opaque barriers than tariffs can hinder trade. These include border controls, phytosanitary restrictions, weak transport systems, and regulatory differences. RTAs therefore increasingly cover some of these issues, which are more suitably addressed at the regional level. Some RTAs have also included dispute resolution mechanisms, which, in the implementation phase of the arrangement, have proven to be extremely useful. †¢Reinforcement Of Internal Regulatory Or Structural Reforms Secondly, RTAs can reinforce internal regulatory or structural reforms. This can be done through external treaty obligations and visible political commitments. Often, small countries participating in a RTA have just made, or are trying to push ahead, major reforms. †¢Liberalization Of Services Turning to large industrial countries, trade in goods as such no longer appears to be the dominant factor for participating in RTAs. A growing number of RTAs includes provisions on liberalizing services (including financial), investment, protecting intellectual property rights, labour and environmental standards, and dispute resolution. Industrial countries are keen to include such issues to counter what they regard as unfair competition due to, for example, piracy or poor labour standards. They also desire to open up markets for their services sectors, where they have a comparative advantage. †¢Political Objectives Leaving aside economic goals for a moment, for some countries, political objectives are another important reason to enter into a RTA. Countries that may have far-reaching integration as a goal typically start out with trade agreements as a first step toward a deepening of political relationship. For e.g. initial agreements can cover trade and investment, then member countries later form an economic and monetary union, and then enhance the process towards a fully-fledged political union with a common constitution. Similarly, forging bilateral and regional trade ties is often linked to geopolitical and security considerations. Trade policy is a key instrument of foreign policy to secure regional stability by promoting the development of participating countries. In addition, political cooperation can reduce the potential for military conflicts among member nations. †¢Defensive Motive A last reason to enter into regional agreements may be defensive. As more and more countries enter into regional agreements, the cost of non participation rises. While some countries may prefer the multilateral route, they may also feel that not entering into regional agreements can lead to a competitive disadvantage relative to countries that have entered into RTAs. †¢Greater Consensus The benefits of trying to eliminate trade barriers in smaller groups of countries is facilitated through RTAs i.e. it can be easier to gain consensus among the relatively few members of a regional agreement as opposed to among all the member countries in the WTO. While RTAs are signed for a variety of reasons, the impact on trade, growth, and employment seems crucial in determining the extent to which broader objectives are achieved. It is difficult to identify arrangements that have advanced wider political objectives, without having first achieved progress in enhancing trade, and having this seen reflected in higher rates of sustainable growth and employment creation. Thus, it appears that the willingness to accept trade liberalization and the accompanying economic adjustments is a first step that may be indicative of progress than can be made in other areas. †¢Economies of scale Economies of scale are one of the most important aspects of regional integration in regards to development. In economic theory, economy of scale gains can be achieved when cost of producing one unit declines as the number of units increases. Economies of scale gains can be realized in regional integration agreements between developing nations because of the size of their combined markets and lower capital costs. Before regional integration, both country A and B will produce a certain good. Because of economies of scale, the country with the cheapest production costs will be able to provide the good for the entire region at a lower cost and to the benefit of entire region. †¢Trade Creation Trade creation is another aspect of regional integration that can also be achieved through RTAs. A RTA effectively expands the market in which a producer can sell a good by making goods both available and at a cheaper price to new markets. Under a RTA, countries will turn to partner nations for cheaper products. Thus, production can shift to nations with the greatest comparative advantage, resulting in greater exports and imports within the region under the agreement along with greater efficiency in the allocation of resources. †¢Bargaining Power Increased bargaining power is another major reason for developing nations to pursue RTAs. Economies within developing nations are in almost all cases small in comparison to developed nations, and are often in danger of being left out of global economy as a result of size. Under RTA, a group of nations can in effect gain greater visibility and influence within the international community. Increased bargaining power within the International community can have effects on a number of different aspects; cooperating members are able to share in the high fixed of negotiation. This power of integration has been seen in various RTAs, including CARICOM’s success in international policymaking, and perhaps even more clearly with ‘Group 20’ in the Doha round of WTO trade talks. As confirmed by several conversations with experts in the international community, increased bargaining power is a political goal sought after RTAs. †¢Market Attractiveness Increased market attractiveness has played a major role in the RTAs especially in the case of Africa. Similar to the goal of increased bargaining power, RTAs provide increased market attractiveness for FDI and trade relations with the developed world because of the clarity of rules and the stability than an RTA brings to a region. As a region becomes unified under standard trade measures and investment law, it is easier for outside nations to invest in and do business with the developing nations under RTA. This in turn can bring increased financial and capital flows, infrastructure, and ultimately wealth to the region. Increased FDI after formation of the RTAs has been researched extensively by organizations such as World Bank, and various situations point to the effectiveness of regional integration as a positive for FDI. The investment situation within European community and the NAFTA all showed significantly increases in FDI after negotiations were concluded. Another aspect of increased market attractiveness is the idea of conflict resolution within developing nations. Under some RTAs, conflict resolution boards have been put into place that have increased the legality of agreements and increased attractiveness for foreign investors and export purchasers. One of the boards includes the peer review system used by the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) that has been viewed favourably by various developed nations and groups including the US and EU. †¢Cooperation in public goods This also assists national economies in their development. By cooperating on infrastructure projects the whole region can benefit and money can be saved through economies of scale gains in regards to investment in public goods. This cooperation can also be beneficial for environmental reasons. Railroads, public utilities projects, and power plant initiatives (with the case of SADC power pooling project) are only a few examples of how regional integration can increase efficiently and save money for member nations. 3.5Drawbacks of RTAs Disadvantages Of Regional Initiatives While there are many obvious benefits for countries to join in RTA, as evidence by their popularity, there are some negative aspects associated with the RTAs. It is important to know these drawbacks in order to make RTA work as well as to formulate policy as regards to new RTAs. †¢Trade Diversion As mentioned above, Trade Creation is one of the benefits of RTA, but trade creation however is not the entire picture. A negative aspect, called trade diversion can occur when the partners divert away products that may be more cheaply produced in favour of products from the RTA partner, even if these products are produced at a higher cost, thus resulting in inefficiency. In the case of trade diversion, regional suppliers have an advantage as a result of preferential treatment rather than an actual comparative advantage. The latter stems from sales won at the expense of third country suppliers, which become less competitive purely because they face a tariff barrier that does not apply to suppliers within the new free trade area. Such increased trade actually reduces the economy’s overall efficiency. It results in lowered welfare for the importing nation as tariff revenues are lost and not replaced by gains from trade when trade creation cannot outweigh trade diversion. †¢Delocalisation Of Labour Market Another negative consequence of RTA is that it leads to shift in employment. Since the formation of trading blocs significantly reduces or eliminates barriers to trade, the producer of a particular good or service will more often be decided by relative productivity. With trade agreements, labour market is dislocated, i.e., there are some jobs that are loss while others are gained. An example will be the loss of between 32000 and 100000 of manufacturing jobs as a direct result of the NAFTA between Canada, Mexico and United States. But evidence also suggests that between 90,000 and 160,000 jobs tied to exports to Mexico were also created by NAFTA. Dislocation allows a nation to upgrade their economy toward higher-wage-paying industries. †¢Increase In The Complexity Of International Trading System FTAs also increase the complexity of the international trading system and can raise transaction costs for business. For example, complicated rules of origin are required to prevent third countries product entering via the other party. With different rules negotiated under different agreements, enforcement of these rules and compliance with them by business can be a complicated task. Businesses have to take into account the different dispute settlement mechanisms as well as different standards regimes and other harmonization arrangements. †¢Unequal Bargaining Power In a RTA between a developed country and a developing country or countries, the latter are usually in a weaker bargaining position due to the lack of capacity of their economies, their weaker political situation and their weaker negotiating resources. The result of such unequal bargaining power can be that significant trade restrictions by large countries remain in place instead of being eliminated under circumstances of more equal negotiating power. †¢Distortion In Production Additionally RTAs may negatively impact on global trade because regional preferences and rules of origin distort production by making location of production or source of raw materials the driving incentive. †¢Prevents Complete Liberalisation In Multilateral Arena RTA may also prevent complete liberalization in multilateral arena. Countries that benefit from regional trade agreements may be reluctant to expose themselves to the risks of opening their markets on a multilateral level, if they expect relatively insignificant returns. †¢Loss Of Technology And R&D Transfer One of the negative consequences of RTA is the loss of technology and R&D transfers from developed countries. Technology and ‘Know How’ transfers from developed countries are viewed as the major benefits from RTAs. Unfortunately, as intra-regional trade begins to dominate a trading bloc, these technology and R&D transfers can be lost. †¢Loss Of National Sovereignty Successive levels of integration require that nations surrender more of their national sovereignty. For this reason, the higher levels of integration are more difficult to achieve. †¢While there are many obvious benefits for countries to join in RTA, as evidence by their popularity, there are some negative aspects associated with the RTAs. It is important to know these drawbacks in order to make RTA work as well as to formulate policy as regards to new RTAs. These include amongst others trade diversion, loss of national sovereignty and unequal bargaining power.

Animal use in Medical Research

The use of animals in medical researches has saved and also improved the quality of lives of many people and animals as well. Medicines, techniques and procedures currently used in diagnosing and curing diseases have been made easier by using animals in research.This has greatly helped to understand how the body works. Most of these researches are conducted in universities, hospitals and other institutes to find cures that reduce the death of human beings and at the same time the animals themselves (Understanding Animal Research, 2010).Initially, most deaths were occurred as a result of infections and diseases and it was not until 1900 that developments were made to put an end to the deaths due to the introduction of animal testing (Understanding Animal Research, 2010).Major medical breakthroughs such as the discovery of anesthesia, artificial respiration, germ theory and the discovery of the AIDS causing virus have been arrived at as a result of animal testing (Understanding Animal Research, 2010). Medical research that uses animals should be continued as it aids in saving lives.Use of animals for medical research is cruel and immoralDissection of animals is also known as vivisection which can either be done either in part or completely and later the findings used in medical research (Monamy, 2000).Alternatively, animal reactions to different substances can be monitored from their behavior. In his research, Monamy recognizes the use of animals in conducting experiments in medicine fields such as psychology, physiology, biology and improvements in medical technology.However, animal rights activists consider actions inflicted to animals in the process of research as a form of cruelty, terming the actions as against the moral obligations of human beings to animals. Animal rights campaigners claim that animals possess moral rights and thus it is wrong for human beings to use them for experimental purposes (White, 2008).The findings of investigation on the morality of animals shows that a morally considerable creature as one that can be morally wronged. This is a capability that is generalized to be possessed by human beings despite there being no clear proof of any other animal with the same ability (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2003).According to Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, a claim that human beings are more morally competent than animals grants them the ability to make decisions that affect both animals and human beings (2003). Also, this makes the human beings responsible for activities that enhance the dignity of all forms of life on earth.It has led to the development of processes and substances that ensure that life is habitable for both human and non-human beings. In the light of this view, proponents of animal testing have continued to cite this as a reason for the execution of animal testing.In contrast, there has been a revelation of animals exhibiting feelings, especially primates. They have social ties with each other. This was discovered by their abilities to show emotions when one of them died after being depressed (2003). Other animals too have been proven to demonstrate high degrees of mental sophistication (White, 2008).In his book, Contemporary Moral Problems† White claims that this argument accords them the moral right to be respected and not to be used in experiments. Birds such as parrots, mynahs and magpies are seen to be mentally competent (2008, pp. 347).More supporters of animal rights claim that animals have inherent value. Thus, they believe that every creature has the will to live its life free from pain or suffering like the one that may be caused by medical tests (Singer, 1975).All beings are entitled to similar considerations in view of their capacity to be alive (Singer, 1975). In his book named â€Å"Animal liberation: a new ethics for our treatment of animals† Singer explains that the capacity of some animals of the group of higher vertebrates to feel pain must not be ignored. He relates it to the ability of human beings to feel the same and hence the need to respect moral rights of animals.According to Singer, the fact that human beings continue to accord moral respect to retarded human beings and those considered to have lost their capacity for what is considered moral rights, is being unfair to animals. He adds that â€Å"lack of moral rigths† has led to animals being slaughtered for food and continously used in medical experiments (1975).

Community Partners Identification Assignment Research Proposal

Community Partners Identification Assignment - Research Proposal Example The VFW would be a great place to start soliciting these letters because all of the men and women that are members of this society are veterans and have experienced the difficulties related to adjusting to life after service and combat. There is also a need on the behalf of the VFW to engage these new returning veterans. Many posts recognize the need to recruit young veterans to sustain the organization into the future. Supporting the program could be good public relations for local VFW chapters near the university. Another veteran’s organization is the AMVETS. This is an advocacy group for American veterans. They already sponsor several scholarship funds, so their commitment to education for returning veterans is already demonstrated. The AMVETS have an outstanding communications network, so a letter of support offering help by making the university program known to returning veterans would be especially helpful. Other groups outside the university could include major educational and social foundations that are not directly linked to veterans or the military. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation is dedicated to improving education in America. While their focus is on K-12 education, the organization also deals with some higher education concerns. Within the university community, the first group to be contacted with for a letter would be the office of the Dean of Continuing Education or the department that oversees non-traditional students. These returning veterans are mostly the age of many undergraduates, but their service in the military places them in a different category than a student coming to college straight from high school or prep school. Some of their needs will be different, especially if they have served in very stressful situations. The mental health services at the university should be contacted so a letter of arranged services is described for these returning veterans. Posttraumatic stress disorder is a barrier to success

Global War on Terror Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Global War on Terror - Assignment Example The refusal of the world’s foremost nuclear superpower to join the moratorium on nuclear testing sent a strong signal to would-be nuclear powers: if the US reserved the right to test these weapons, why shouldn’t others? (Spanier and Hook, 2007) US also refused to sign Ottawa convention calling for a worldwide ban on land mines, whose primary victims were in war-torn developing countries. Retreat from multilateral became even worse when the republican George Bush became president in 2001. He was not ready to mend fences with the international community. Instead of working through formal organizations such as UN ornate, US form coalition of willing on case by case basis and dismantle them when the mission is accomplished. Bush withdraws from Antiballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) despite protest by Russian leaders and warning by strategic analysts of a new global arms race. His dismissal of the Kyoto Protocol and failure to propose a more rigorous alternative despite earlier pledges to do so incited widespread criticism from abroad. This lead UN Human Rights Commission to deny US a seat on the panel on may 2001 for the first time (Spanier and Hook, 2007). In my opinion, these policies are not appropriate. They are hindrance to US war on terror. The policy is not appropriate since the war on terror should be a corporate responsibility of all of the international organizations and therefore it requires their good will. QUESTION TWO Describe the concept of â€Å"asymmetric warfare† (p. 280). In what ways should the War on Terror be considered an asymmetric conflict? (Be specific.) What are the advantages and disadvantages of the US and its opponents in the War on Terror? Asymmetric warfare is described as a conflict deviating from the norm, or an indirect approach to affect a counter-balancing of force. The disadvantaged power must push its unique advantages or successfully exploit particular weaknesses of the enemy in order to have any anticipation of prevailing. War on terror is consider asymmetric conflict because the terrorist advocates for followers using terrorist technique to retain support in home country and to win over the people occupying it in order to stop the principal support base partisans. Advantages It enables the USA in getting support from other countries. Help USA of being not accused against committing war crimes in Afghanistan and Iraq. USA was only too pleased to be able to tell the world that it was helping the freedom loving people of Afghanistan (Huntington, 1993). Disadvantages Terrorist organizations have used asymmetric warfare concepts mainly when setting up operations against Western supremacy forces. Terrorist make use of local tribal forces in attacking civilian populations and devastate food supply infrastructure in order to make a humanitarian aid catastrophe which would sluggish Western coalition forces (Huntington, 1993). QUESTION THREE Describe the Bush Doctrine's grand strategy of primac y and preemption. To what extent is this strategy new? In your opinion, is this the correct course for the US at this time? Explain. Bush message upon taking office in 2001 was that US would be concern primarily with its own interests and would go it alone to secure this interest whenever necessary. Bush claims that he is fighting against terrorism globally. His strategy which amount to Bush

Ethics reflection paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethics reflection paper - Essay Example Application or action enables one to implement ethical decisions in one’s daily personal and professional life. This A3 approach makes a leader understand the needs of the stakeholders and cater to them with heightened vision. My ethical perspective has evolved throughout the program as I have been able to know what ethical standards I follow and where I need improvement. I have been able to decide between right and wrong and decide among alternatives. I consider that person to be good who wants to do good deeds on a consistent basis. The moral standards of right and wrong are the guidelines that tell us how to take steps toward the betterment of the whole society. Ethical conduct is improved by developing a basic respect for others. Organized ethical attempts addresses the needs of the whole society whose fulfillment is better for the majority of people. My future ethical perspective tells me that I look forward to respect all people from all backgrounds without making any discrimination of color, cast and creed. I have also learnt that rational thinking is important to achieve best ethical results. Treating people at equal basis is all about giving importance to those who have not been listened to in th e past. A person should know how to give respect to others and their decisions and should have the ability to involve others in decision-making process. This is important to conduct oneself ethically. This ethical conduct defines the ways a person ought to live in the society and work toward the betterment of the whole society where all persons are treated on a fair basis. All ethical policies have the same objective to maintain the integrity of the whole society rather than focusing on one individual person. I believe that today’s adolescents need such role models that teach them how to make ethical decisions and live such a life that is respectful to

Trial court brief Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Trial court brief - Essay Example This memorandum is submitted in opposition to that motion. QUESTION PRESENTED Under the Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act can a negligence claim be stated when a lessor who is self-insured fails to carry insurance. STATEMENT OF THE CASE Sage Rent-A-Car Inc. leased a vehicle to Jeffery Calvin. Mr. Calvin failed to stop at a stop sign and collided with Jane White. Sage did not bear insurance. Ms. White filed a negligent complaint against Sage Rent-A-Car Inc. for the negligent use of the lessor’s vehicle by the lessee. Sage filed a motion to dismiss the complaint under Rule 1-012B (6) for failure to state claim. ARGUMENT MS. WHITE’S ARGUMENT THAT SAGE HAS DUTY TO ASSUME RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE ACCIDENT IS A SET OF FACTS WHICH, IF PROVEN, WOULD ESTABLISH THE DEFENDANTS DUTY TO CARRY LICENSE AND, THEREFORE, A CLAIM CAN BE STATED AS TO DUTY. This matter is before the court on a Rule 1-012B (6) motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim. In the case Las Lumarias of the N.M. Council v. Isengard, 92 N.M. 297, 300-301 (1978), the New Mexico District Court established the standard for the granting of a 1-012B (6) motion. The court stated, â€Å"A motion to dismiss a complaint is properly granted only when it appears that the plaintiff cannot recover or be entitled to relief under any state of facts provable under the claim†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Sage Rent-A-Car’s motion specifically alleges that a claim cannot be stated in this case with regard to duty. To survive this motion, Ms. White must demonstrate that there is a provable set of facts that would establish the duty of Sage Rent-A-Car Inc. to carry license in this case. The Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act establishes the prevention of a motor owner from permitting the operation of an uninsured motor vehicle. Section 66-5-205 sets out the duty of Sage Rent-A-Car Inc. It provides, â€Å"No owner shall permit the operation of an uninsured motor vehicle, or a motor vehicle for which evidence o f financial responsibility as was affirmed to the department is not currently valid, upon the streets or highways of New Mexico unless the vehicle is specifically exempted from the provisions of the Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Section 66-5-218 sets out the procedure for acquiring evidence of financial responsibility: Evidence of financial responsibility, when required under the Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act, may be given by filing: A. evidence of a motor vehicle insurance policy; B. a surety bond as provided in Section 66-5-225 NMSA 1978; or C. A certificate of deposit of money as provided in Section 66-5-226 NMSA 1978. Section 66-5-207 provides for exempted motor vehicles. It provides, â€Å"The following motor vehicles are exempt from the Mandatory Financial Responsibility Act; D. A motor vehicle approved as self-insured by the superintendent of insurance pursuant to Section 66-5-207, 1 NMSA 1978:†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The Act provides for the conditions under which an owner may permit an uninsured vehicle to operate. It specifies for the exceptions to this rule, and this includes motor vehicles approved as self-insured by the superintendent of insurance. Ms. White’s complaint states that Sage is required to carry a license under the provisions of

Marketing- Analyzing Buying Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marketing- Analyzing Buying Behavior - Essay Example â€Å"eco-friendly† product can be created through informative advertising by telling consumers the hazards of using the product that are not made for the wellbeing of the environment. Another danger in the proposal is the pricing of the new product which will be charged 150% more than the current price. However, if the consumer perceives that the product is not doing a better job than their conventional products, then once again our marketing proposal could lose out. Hence, careful pricing needs to be done to see if it is consistent with the benefits that it promises to render. The increase in the availability of the product in various retail outlets will be very beneficial for the business and this could increase our sales and profits and we can try to increase retailing outlets for even our conventional products. Commercial products are often sold to different organizations once a problem is recognized by these institutions. As far as the anti-bacterial is concerned we should go with the plan. The reason behind this is that currently there is no competitor in the market and we can afford to charge high prices without losing any customers. We can therefore squeeze the maximum revenue from the market until new competition arises in the market of anti-bacterial cleaners. The consumers in this market have no opportunity for supplier search and we can squeeze the total market sales from our production. Neither will they need any proposal solicitation nor will they be reviewing our performance as there be no benchmark in the market. Thus we can go in the market to meet our objectives. Similarly, we can also repackage the wax product due its distinct features in the market and command high prices. This again will be a success due to lack of any similar product in the market. Therefore, we can trust Rena and immediately implement the plans as proposed by her to meet our marketing objectives. This exercise provided us with knowledge that businesses can produce a

Jellyfish Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Jellyfish - Essay Example Jellyfish have no head, spine, heart, eyes, or brain. Instead of having a brain, the creature has a nervous system also referred as the nerve net that consists of receptors that detect the odor, light, and other responses. Additionally, Jellyfish has sensory organs known as Rhopalia that helps in maintaining balance. They have a primitive sense that consists of the neural net and eye spots commonly used to sense dark and light. Jellyfishes’ body is comprised of three layers. The outer layer referred as epidermis, the inner layer known as the gastrodermis, and the middle layer referred as the mesoglea. The epidermis is the most important layer that covers the external body of this creature. The epidermis protects the skin from the invasion of harmful substances in the body. The gastrodermis protects the inner layer of the jellyfish. Typically, Jellyfish has a simple digestive cavity referred as the coelenterons that are used as the stomach and excretory organ. The coelenterons operate like a gullet, intestines, and stomach through the mouth. On average, the length of jellyfish tentacle is two to ten meters and the length can grow tremendously. A study conducted by King (22), indicates that the longest jellyfish to have lived was 120 feet. Jellyfish are carnivores and they tend to increase rapidly when the food is plentiful. These creatures feed on small crustaceans and zooplankton just to name a few. Jellyfish are nonaggressive, free-swimming, and surrounded by tentacles with poisoning and stinging cells. The tentacles contain sacs filled with poison that can be life-threatening. With its severity in mind, researchers have provided facts and information on how to treat this sting. To remove the sting, one should use tweezers, thick clothing, gloves, or sticks (Lindeen 33). According to this research, one should not touch the sting with bare skin since the sting is poisonous and can severely affect the skin. One should throw away the item used for removing the sting to avoid stinging yourself later. To fully deactivate the poisonous sting, one should pour vinegar on the stung for

Chapter two - Mississippi schools Essay Example for Free

Chapter two Mississippi schools Essay The following literature focuses on how schools in the Mississippi School district and nationwide are implementing school improvement plans and closing the achievement gap. In School Improvement and Closing the Achievement Gap Report 2003-2004 the accountability of Mississippi Schools past and present is discussed (2004) and Craig Jerald, author of Dispelling the Myth discusses how nationwide high poverty, high minority schools have high achieving students (2001). Both reports will be discussed here. The researcher wanted to know how many high-poverty and high minority schools nationwide have high student performance. The study used the Education Trust Database to identify certain criteria. Over 4500 schools were analyzed. Each meeting the criteria set and performing well above the expectation (2001). Both papers discuss the achievement gap, more importantly they reported the areas of greatest improvement. The Achievement Gap Report (2004) focused on the Mississippi school districts. It gave an accountability report on those school districts that have been struggling, as well as providing a strategic outline to close the gap. Specific schools were used as models of for improving test scores. Dispelling the Myth (Jerald, 2001) focused on school districts nation wide. Although no reasons for poor school performance were given, the author did state that none of the schools were magnet schools. This report showed that most schools with high poverty, high minority students live in urban areas (2001). However, the more recently published Achievement Gap Report (2004) reported that some of the poorest schools are in rural areas. Dispelling the Myth (2001) looked at specific criteria for the study, whereas, the Achievement Gap Report (2004) did not. Both studies failed to look at specific schools and detail specific strategies used in improving the achievement gap. The Mississippi Achievement Gap Report (2004) plan made suggestions on how schools can improve, but a greater detail is needed to truly understand what each school did to improve scores. Model schools or a model program can be established based on greater research. Socioeconomic Influence Literature regarding reading programs was of most interest for this study. Several scientific journals addressed factors of low socioeconomic status and under achievement. The achievement gap found amongst low-income students was addressed in Education: The State We’re In (Donahue Griggs, 2003). Substantial information was given on the obstacles facing high-poverty youth today. Reading proficiency among elementary school students of low-income families are at a disadvantage (2003). When studying low-income fourth graders, the author found that in 2003, across the nation, only fifteen percent are proficient in reading. The authors also demonstrated that the majority of low-income students read about three grades behind non-poor students (2003). Proficiency differences among races were briefly discussed; Similar disparities exist between white students and students of color; 39% of white 4th graders can read at the proficient level compared to only 12 % of African-American students and 14% of Latinos. Overall, about three in ten fourth graders can read proficiently, and this in itself is cause for concern. (2003) Parental Involvement, Instructional Expenditures, Family Socioeconomic Attributes, and Student Achievement (Okpala, et al, 2001). Parental involvement is a commonly discussed approach to establishing higher student achievement. A study done in North Carolina was based on three factors; (a) Instructional supplies expenditures will affect academic achievement positively; (b) the SES of students in a given school, measured by the percentage of students that participate in free/reduced-price lunch programs, will affect student achievement negatively; and (c) parental involvement that is measured by parental volunteer hours per 100 students will influence student achievement positively. These factors were beneficial in understanding the SES influence on successful reading programs. These factors and the results of this particular study will be investigated further throughout this study. Implementing Change A very brief but informative piece, Evidence from Project Star About Class Size and Student Achievement (Folgers Breda, 1989) addressed three specific questions to ask oneself when considering changing programs. The three questions were; 1) How effective will the change be? 2) How much will it cost and 3) what are the problems of implementation? (1989) All three of these questions were found to be valuable when assessing existing programs, as well as when considering the necessary factors when looking to improve upon them. The Gallup Poll (1989 Survey) was reported to have an overwhelming approval from parents when asked about reducing class size. The problem with this strategy is that â€Å"reducing class size substantially is very costly† (1989). A widely researched program investigated during this study was the Accelerated Reader Program. One report (Melton, et. al. , 2004) demonstrated the uses and results of the AR program. By definition the Accelerated Readers program is â€Å"†¦a learning information system designed to heighten student interest in literature and to help teacher manage literature-based reading (McKnight, 1992). This study was particularly significant because it was conducted in two Jackson, Mississippi elementary schools. There has been extensive coverage of the AR program. A 2004 study compared the reading achievement growth of fifth graders following a year of participation in the AR program with other fifth graders who did not participate. The results demonstrated that students in the AR program actually scored significantly lower than non-participants. Although many studies show little to no benefits from the AR program, the program has provided a few guidelines; such guidelines include, 1) Engage students in large amount of reading practice with authentic material 2) students should read at their own individual reading level, and 3) student incentives such as ribbons or extra recess improves the odds of a students success. By using computer technology, teachers can use the AR program to assess students reading level and invite and motivate students to read material they find interesting (Vollands, et al. , 1999). Students are given a choice of books suited to their particular reading level. Random multiple choice tests are given to test students’ comprehension of the material. In a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Dept. of Education) evaluation, AR programs and other computerized reading programs were reviewed (Chenowith, 2001). The lack of research on evaluated programs ability to produce long-term gains in reading achievement caused the National Institute to determine the AR programs did not meet standards (2001). Common complaints of the AR program include, 1) when the program ended, participating students went back to reading less than before participating 2) the AR program limited the choice of books available to a student because certain books that were not accompanied by an AR test were not valid (Chenowith, 2001) and 3) AR encourages children to read for the wrong reasons, for example to win a prize (Carter, 1996). However, as Chenowith (2001) noted, many parents responded to the latter, that it did not matter why students read, as long as they were in fact reading. Topping and Paul (1999) found that with the proper educator training on the AR program, the odds of successful student achievement with the program will improve. Students already in at risk in reading before the AR program will gain positive results when AR is implemented (Vollands, Topping and Evans, 1999). â€Å"Many elementary schools have adopted programs which encourage authentic reading time and aid in the development of reading skills for life (Melton, et al. , 2004). However, little research has been conducted on individual, less costly programs (2004). When studying the effects of the AR program on African American students and white students in Mississippi, black students scored lower (2004).

Spanish Armada Essay Example for Free

Spanish Armada Essay The Spanish Armada showcased the Spaniards boldness and determination to expand their territory and their religion of Catholicism. However, there are several underlying reasons on why Spain waged a war against England. The decision of King Philip II to launch a fleet of naval ships towards the North have been influenced by many consecutive incidents that demonstrated the looming conflict between Spain and England. During the 16th century, Spain and England used to be allies in advancing a common cause which was to expand their respective colonies. But it was their similar objectives that instigated the manifestation of a strained relationship between the two countries. More so, the relationship between England and Spain became more tensed when Philip II married Mary I, a sibling of Queen Elizabeth I, making him a â€Å"titular King of England. † This union highlighted the difference in religious beliefs of a Catholic and a Protestant that raised eyebrows in the English Monarchy who doubted the real intentions of Spain with England. In retaliation, England gave support to the Dutch uprising against Spain. Several black propaganda were launched that criticized King Philip II and the Catholics in general as wicked human beings. Then, the situation worsened when â€Å"Catholic Queen Mary of Scots†, the only remaining link of Spain with England in 1587, was executed for allegedly plotting against Queen Elizabeth I. Because of these events, the plan of King Philip II to conquer Europe was blocked in which motivated him to start a confrontation with England through an Armada (Mitchell, 2005). Unfortunately, Spain was defeated in this battle because of the unfavorable weather conditions and the fact that the English were more advanced with their warfare resources and strategy. As a result, Englands victory entitled the English with the position of being the strongest and most influential in Europe. Meanwhile, for Spain, their loss became a learning experience that motivated them to enhance more their naval capabilities as well as their military tactics. References Mitchell, C. V. (2005 August). The weathering of the armada. Inventory of Conflict Environment. Retrieved May 20, 2008 from http://www. american. edu/ted/ice/armada. htm